GWANET

Glossary

Glossary of gender terminology contains main definitions and concepts. The glossary is not comprehensive and does not claim to cover all aspects. It reflects only the very general concepts and definitions.

A B C D E F G H I L M N P R S T U W Y

Access

is the means or rights to obtain services, products or commodities. The Women's Equality and Empowerment Framework identifies "access" as one the five levels of equality which are important in the process of women's development. Gender gaps in access to resources and services are one type of obstacle to women's development. Women's achievement of equality of access to resources and services as seen as an objective for women's equality, by the same token, women's mobilisation to achieve equality of access is an element of the process of empowerment.

Annual Average Population

The average population during a calendar year is generally calculated as the arithmetic mean of the population on 1 January of two consecutive years (it is also referred to as the mean population).

Abortion

Includes all legally and illegally induced early foetal deaths. Excludes spontaneous abortions (miscarriages). Generally, data is only available for legal abortions.

Abortion Rate

Defined here as the number of abortions during a given year per 1 000 live births.

Adolescent Fertility Rate

The number of children born alive to women aged 15-19 per 1 000 women aged 15-19.

Adult Education

Adult Education refers to all kinds of general and job-related education and training, organised, financed, or sponsored by authorities, provided by employers or self-financed.

Assault

Physical attack against the body of another person, including battery but excluding indecent/sexual assault.

Average Earnings

Remuneration, usually in cash, paid to full time full year employees for work. Should relate to gross remuneration.

Body Mass Index (BMI)

The international standard for measuring underweight, overweight, and obesity is the Body Mass Index (BMI), defined as weight (in kg) divided by the square of one's height (in m): kg/m². For assessing obesity in adult populations, the BMI (Body Mass Index) categories are:

• BMI less than 17 kg/m² for underweight
• BMI 25 kg/m² for overweight (Pre-obese: BMI 25.0-29.9 kg/m²)
• BMI 30 kg/m² for obesity

Control

Control means the ability to direct, or to influence events so that one's own interests are protected. The Women's Equality & Empowerment Framework recognises women's equality of control with men as the most important or "highest" aspect of women's development - where women ensure that resources and benefits are distributed so that both women and men get equal shares. Whereas conscientisation and participation are essential to the process of women's empowerment, it is only gender equality in control which provides the outcome.

Child mortality rate

Child mortality rate refers to the annual number of deaths in the 1-4 years age group per 1 000 of the population aged 1-4.

Children

There is no unique international definition available although in many reports 0-18 years has been used. Therefore, the national definitions for children are to be used. An additional breakdown by pre-school, primary, and secondary school ages is desirable.

Development

Development is here used to mean both the improved material well-being (welfare) of people and the process by which this improved well-being is achieved. The concept of development also includes an element of equality - that material benefits from the development process should be fairly distributed, especially to benefit those most in need - the disadvantaged and the most vulnerable. Therefore the special interest in women's development arises because women are a majority amongst the most disadvantaged.

Divorce

Final legal dissolution of a marriage; a separation of husband and wife that confers on the parties the right to remarriage under civil, religious and/or other provisions in accordance with the laws of the country.

Empowerment

Empowerment is an important element of development, being the process by which people take control and action in order to overcome obstacles. Empowerment especially means the collective action by the oppressed and deprived to overcome the obstacles of structural inequality which have previously put them in a disadvantaged position. The Women's Equality & Empowerment Framework sees empowerment as the goal, and at the same time, the essential process for women's advancement. It is the process by which women mobilize to understand, identify and overcome gender discrimination, so as to achieve equality of welfare, and equal access to resources.

Equality of opportunity

Equality of opportunity means that everybody has an equal chance, especially for equal access. In other words equality of opportunity means that there is no structural discrimination standing in the way of any individual or social group. Equality of opportunity for women would mean ending all gender discrimination.

Equity

Equity means fairness and justice in the distribution of benefits and responsibilities. There has been a debate as to whether equality or equity should be the goals of empowerment and change. Equity also means "having a stake in" or "having a share of". It is , therefore an important component of equality. Technically equality before the law could and often does exist without those deemed to be "equal" really "having a stake in". However, because its meaning of equity has been seen to depend on the definition of fairness and justice it is often said to be a lesser term that equality. In addition, in its legal sense the term equity may suggest a limited notion of the concept of justice, since equity refers to justice within the existing law, rather than justice by changing the law. By contrast, the Women's Equality & Empowerment Framework follows the 1979 Women's Convention in defining justice for women in terms of gender equality.

Economic activity rate

The ratio (expressed in percent) of the economically active population (employed and unemployed) aged 15 years and over to the total population of the corresponding age group. Alternatively, the economic activity rate can be calculated for the age group 15-64 or 15 to retirement age, or any other age group.

Economically active population

The definition describes all persons of either sex who furnish the supply of labour for the production of goods and services during the specified time-reference period. In relation to the reference period, the following two measures are distinguished:

• Usually Active Population - Measured in relation to a long reference period such as a year.
• Currently Active Population or Labour force - Measured in relation to a short reference period such as one day or one week.

Educational attainment

Percentage of the adult population (25 years old and over) that has completed a certain level of education defined according to the International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED 1976 or 1997).

Employed population

The employed comprise all persons above a specific age who during a specified brief period, either one week or one day, were in the following categories:

• "paid employment":
  • "at work": persons who during the reference period performed some work for wage or salary, in cash or in kind;
  • "with a job but not at work": persons who, having already worked in their present job, were temporarily not at work during the reference period and had a formal attachment to their job.
  • "self-employment":
  • "at work": persons who during the reference period performed some work for profit or family gain, in cash or in kind;
  • "with an enterprise but not at work": persons with an enterprise, which may be a business enterprise, a farm or a service undertaking, who were temporarily not at work during the reference period for any specific reason.

Employers

According to ICSE 1993 (International Classification by Status of Employment), an employer is a person who operates his or her own economic enterprise, or engages independently in a profession or trade and hires one or more employees.

Families

Defined in the narrow sense of a family nucleus consisting of a couple without children, a couple with one or more children or a lone parent with one or more children.

Fields of Study

According to ISCED 1976, the following fields of study can be distinguished:

• Agriculture - Includes general programmes in agriculture, animal husbandry, horticulture, crop husbandry, agricultural economics, food sciences and technology, soil and water sciences, veterinary medicine, forestry, forest products technology, fishery science and technology.
• Architecture and town planning - Includes architecture, town planning, landscape architecture.
• Commerce - Includes business administration and commercial programmes, accountancy, secretarial programmes, business machine operation and electronic data processing, financial management, public administration, institutional administration.
• Education - Includes general teacher training, teacher training programmes with specialization in vocational subjects, education science.
• Engineering - Includes chemical engineering and materials techniques, civil engineering, electrical and electronics engineering, surveying, industrial engineering, metallurgical engineering, mining engineering, mechanical engineering, agricultural and forestry engineering techniques, fishery engineering techniques.
• Home economics - Includes household arts, consumer food research and nutrition.
• Humanities & Art - Includes languages and literature, linguistics, comparative literature, programmes for interpreters and translators, history, archaeology, philosophy, religion and theology, art studies, drawing and painting, sculpturing, handicrafts, music, drama, photography and cinematography, interior design, history and philosophy of art.
• Law - Includes law, programmes for 'notaires', local magistrates, and jurisprudence.
• Mass communication - Includes journalism, programmes in radio and television broadcasting, public relations, communications arts, library science, programmes for technicians in museums and similar repositories, documentation techniques.
• Medical Science - Includes medicine, surgery and medical specialities, hygiene and public health, physiotherapy and occupational therapy, nursing, midwifery, medical X-ray techniques and other programmes in medical diagnostic and treatment techniques, medical technology, dentistry, stomatology and odontology, dental techniques, pharmacy, optometry.
• Natural Science, Maths, Computer Science - Includes biological science, chemistry, geological science, physics, astronomy, meteorology, oceanography, general programmes in mathematics, statistics, actuarial science, computer science.
• Social & Behavioural Science - Includes social and behavioural science, economics, demography, political science, sociology, anthropology, psychology, geography, and studies of regional cultures.

According to ISCED 1997, the following fields of study can be distinguished:

• General Programmes - Includes basic general programmes pre-primary, elementary, primary, secondary, etc., simple and functional literacy, numeracy, and personal development, i.e. enhancing personal skills, e.g. behavioural capacities, mental skills, personal organizational capacities, life orientation programmes.
• Education - Includes teacher training for pre-school, kindergarten, elementary school, vocational, practical, non-vocational subject, adult education, teacher trainers and for handicapped children. General and specialized teacher training programmes. Education science: curriculum development in non-vocational and vocational subjects. Educational assessment, testing and measurement, educational research, other education science.
• Humanities and Arts - Includes arts. Fine arts: drawing, painting, sculpture; Performing arts: music, drama, dance, circus; Graphic and audio-visual arts: photography, cinematography, music production, radio and TV production, printing and publishing; Design; Craft skills. And includes humanities: Religion and theology; Foreign languages and cultures: living or 'dead' languages and their literature, area studies; Native languages: current or vernacular language and its literature; Other humanities: interpretation and translation, linguistics, comparative literature, history, archaeology, philosophy, ethics.
• Social sciences, business, and law - Includes social and behavioural science: Economics, economic history, political science, sociology, demography, anthropology (except physical anthropology), ethnology, futurology, psychology, geography (except physical geography), peace and conflict studies, human rights. Journalism and information: Journalism; library technician and science; technicians in museums and similar repositories; Documentation techniques; Archival sciences. Business and administration: Retailing, marketing, sales, public relations, real estate; Finance, banking, insurance, investment analysis; Accounting, auditing, bookkeeping; Management, public administration, institutional administration, personnel administration; Secretarial and office work. And also includes law: Local magistrates, 'notaires', law (general, international, labour, maritime, etc.), jurisprudence, history of law.
• Science - Includes life sciences: Biology, botany, bacteriology, toxicology, microbiology, zoology, entomology, ornithology, genetics, biochemistry, biophysics, other allied sciences, excluding clinical and veterinary sciences. Physical sciences: Astronomy and space sciences, physics, other allied subjects, chemistry, other allied subjects, geology, geophysics, mineralogy, physical anthropology, physical geography and other geosciences, meteorology and other atmospheric sciences including climatic research, marine science, vulcanology, palaeoecology. Mathematics and statistics: Mathematics, operations research, numerical analysis, actuarial science, statistics and other allied fields. And also includes computing: Computer sciences: system design, computer programming, data processing, networks, operating systems - software development only (hardware development should be classified with the engineering fields).
• Engineering, manufacturing and construction - Includes engineering and engineering trades: Engineering drawing, mechanics, metal work, electricity, electronics, telecommunications, energy and chemical engineering, vehicle maintenance, surveying. Manufacturing and processing: Food and drink processing, textiles, clothes, footwear, leather, materials (wood, paper, plastic, glass, etc.), mining and extraction. And includes architecture and building: Architecture and town planning: structural architecture, landscape architecture, community planning, cartography; Building, construction; Civil engineering.
• Agriculture - Includes agriculture, forestry and fishery: Agriculture, crop and livestock production, agronomy, animal husbandry, horticulture and gardening, forestry and forest product techniques, natural parks, wildlife, fisheries, fishery science and technology. And includes veterinary: Veterinary medicine, veterinary assisting.
• Health and welfare - Includes health: Medicine: anatomy, epidemiology, cytology, physiology, immunology and immunoaematology, pathology, anaesthesiology, paediatrics, obstetrics and gynaecology, internal medicine, surgery, neurology, psychiatry, radiology, ophthalmology; Medical services: public health services, hygiene, pharmacy, pharmacology, therapeutics, rehabilitation, prosthetics, optometry, nutrition; Nursing: basic nursing, midwifery; Dental services: dental assisting, dental hygienist, dental laboratory technician, odontology. Also includes social services: Social care: care of the disabled, childcare, youth services, gerontological services; Social work: counselling, welfare n.e.c.
• Services - Includes personal services: Hotel and catering, travel and tourism, sports and leisure, hairdressing, beauty treatment and other personal services: cleaning, laundry, dry-cleaning, cosmetic services, domestic science. Transport services: Seamanship, ship's officer, nautical science, aircrew, air traffic control, railway operations, road motor vehicle operations, postal service. Environmental protection: Environmental conservation, control and protection, air and water pollution control, labour protection and security. And security services: Protection of property and persons: police work and related law enforcement, criminology, fire-protection and fire fighting, civil security; Military.

Gender

The term gender has now transcended its earlier "grammar-based" usage of classifying nouns as male, female and neuter. It is not used to describe the biological sexual characteristics by which we identify females and males but to encompass the socially defined sex roles, attitudes and values which communities and societies ascribe as appropriate for one sex or the other.

Gender roles

are roles within which are classified by sex, where this classification is social and not biological. For example, if child-rearing is classified as a female role, it is a female gender role, not a female sex role since child-rearing can be done by men or women.

Gender role stereotyping

is the constant portrayal, such as in the media or in books, of women and men occupying social roles according to the traditional gender division of labour in a particular society. Such gender role stereotyping works to support and reinforce the traditional gender division of labour by portraying it as "normal" and "natural".

Gender division of labour

means an overall societal pattern where women are allotted one set of gender roles, and men allotted another set. Unequal gender division of labour refers to a gender division of labour where there is an unequal gender division of reward. Discrimination against women in this sense means that women get most of the burden of labour, and most of the unpaid labour, but men collect most of the income and rewards resulting from the labour. In many countries, the most obvious pattern in the gender division of labour is that women are mostly confined to unpaid domestic work and unpaid food production, whereas men dominate in cash crop production and wage employment.

Gender equality

means that there is no discrimination on grounds of a person's sex in the allocation of resources or benefits, or in the access to services. Gender equality may be measured in terms of whether there is equality of opportunity, or equality of results. The UN Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women can be understood as a statement on what the principle of gender equality of opportunity should mean in practice for all aspects of life, and all sectors of the economy.

Gender equity

An approach using gender equity is directed towards ensuring that development policies and interventions leave women no worse off economically or in terms of social responsibility than before the intervention. This approach tries to make equity visible by using indicators which reveal the human cost of many activities; provision of fuel. water, etc. This approach tries to ensure that women have a fair share of the benefits, as well as the responsibilities of the society, equal treatment before the law, equal access to social provisions; education; equal pay for work of the same value.

Gender equity, as a goal, requires that specific measurements and monitoring are employed to ensure that, at a minimum, programmes, policies and projects implemented do not leave women worse off than other sections of the population, in particular the men in their peer group and families.

Gender discrimination

means to give differential treatment to individuals on the grounds of their gender. In many societies, this involves systematic and structural discrimination against women in the distribution of income, access to resources and participation in decision making.

Gender sensitivity

is the ability to recognize gender issues, and especially the ability to recognize women's different perceptions and interests arising from their different social location and different gender roles. Gender sensitivity is often used to mean the same as gender awareness, although gender awareness can also mean the extra ability to recognize gender issues which remain "hidden" from those with a more conventional point of view. Bu here we define gender sensitivity as the beginning of gender awareness, where the latter is more analytical, more critical and more "questioning" of gender disparities.

Gender awareness

means the ability to identify problems arising from gender inequality and discrimination, even if these are not very evident on the surface, or are "hidden" - i.e. are not part of the general or commonly accepted explanation of what and where the problem lies. In other words, gender awareness means a high level of gender conscientisation.

Gender issues

arise where an instance of gender inequality is recognized as undesirable, or unjust. There are three aspects of gender issues, namely: gender gap, discrimination and women's oppression.

Gender analysis

means a close examination of a problem or situation in order to identify the gender issues. The Women's Equality & Empowerment Framework provides a way of unpacking the different aspects of gender issues in the development process, in order to make them more visible and easily recognizable. Gender analysis of a development programme involves identifying the gender issues within the problem which is being addressed and in the obstacles to progress, so that these issues can be addressed in all aspects of the programme - in project objectives, in the choice of intervention strategy and the methods of programme implemention.

Gender planning

means taking account of gender issues in planning. In development planning, it means that gender issues are recognised in the identification of the problem and addressed in development objectives

Gender training

means providing people with formal learning experiences in order to increase their gender awareness. In the case of UNICEF staff, the overall purpose of training is to provide the knowledge and skills necessary to recognise and address gender issues in the programming process. At the contre of this learning process is conscientisation, involving the ability to recognise the underlying issues of gender inequality which forma pervasive obstacle to programme progress.

Gender Mainstreaming

Gender mainstreaming is the process of assessing the implications for women and men of any planned action, including legislation, policies or programmes, in any area and at all levels. It is a strategy for making women's as well as men's concerns and experiences an integral dimension in the design, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of policies and programmes in all political, economic and social spheres, such that inequality between men and women is not perpetuated.

Gender Mainstreaming Principles

Gender mainstreaming means:

• forging and strengthening the political will to achieve gender equality and equity, at the local, national, regional and global levels;
• incorporating a gender perspective into the planning processes of all ministries and departments of government, particularly those concerned with macroeconomic and development planning, personnel policies and management, and legal affairs;
• integrating a gender perspective into all phases of sectoral planning cycles, including the analysis development, appraisal, implementation, monitoring and evaluation policies, programmes and projects;
• using sex-disaggregated data in statistical analysis to reveal how policies impact differently on women and men;
• increasing the numbers of women in decision-making positions in government and the private and public sectors;
• providing tools and training in gender awareness, gender analysis and gender planning to decision-makers, senior managers and other key personnel;
• forging linkages between governments, the private sector, civil society and other stakeholders to ensure a better use of resources.

Gender-Neutral, Gender-Sensitive, and Gender Transformative

The primary objective behind gender mainstreaming is to design and implement development projects, programmes and policies that:

1. do not reinforce existing gender inequalities (Gender Neutral)
2. attempt to redress existing gender inequalities (Gender Sensitive)
3. attempt to re-define women and men’s gender roles and relations (Gender Positive/Transformative)

Gender Negative	Gender Neutral	Gender Sensitive	Gender Positive	Gender Transformative
Gender inequalities are reinforced to achieve desired development outcomes Uses gender norms, roles and stereotypes that reinforce gender inequalities	Gender is not considered relevant to development outcome Gender norms, roles and relations are not affected (worsened or improved)	Gender is a means to reach set development goals Addressing gender norms, roles and access to resources in so far as needed to reach project goals	Gender is central to achieving positive development outcomes Changing gender norms, roles and access to resources a key component of project outcomes	Gender is central to promoting gender equality and achieving positive development outcomes Transforming unequal gender relations to promote shared power, control of resources, decision-making, and support for women’s empowerment

Gender and Development

The Gender and Development (GAD) approach was developed as a response to the failure of WID projects to effect qualitative and long-lasting changes in women’s social status. GAD focuses on social, economic, political and cultural forces that determine how men and women participate in, benefit from, and control project resources and activities differently. This approach shifts the focus from women as a group to the socially determined relations between women and men.

Hierarchical

Hierarchical means arranged as a hierarchy - ranked one above the other, with the one above being more important than the one below. The five levels of the Women's Equality and Empowerment Framework are described as "hierarchical" because in some ways each "higher level is more important than the one below. For example, gender inequality in welfare is caused by gender inequality in access, which then raises the discussion to a more important and quite different level of discussion. These are five levels of analysis and not five stages of development process. Any development problem has these five dimensions within it, and a project must address gender issues progressively at these levels if women's development is to make progress.

Human Development Index (HDI)

The Human Development Index measures a country's achievements in three aspects of human development: longevity, knowledge, and a decent standard of living. Longevity is measured by life expectancy at birth; knowledge is measured by a combination of the adult literacy rate and the combined gross primary, secondary, and tertiary enrolment ratio; and standard of living, as measured by GDP per capita (PPP US$).

Infant Mortality Rate

A vital statistics summary rate based on the number of infant occuring during the same period of time, usually a calendar year, i.e. the number of deaths under one year of age occuring in a given geographical area during a given year, per 1 000 live births occuring among the population of the given geographical area during the same year.

Labour force

The labour force or "currently economically active population" comprises all persons who fulfil the requirements for inclusion among the employed or the unemployed, measured in relation to a short reference period such as one day or one week.

Life expectancy at 65 years

Average number of years of life remaining to persons surviving to exact age specified, if subject to mortality conditions of the period indicated.

Life expectancy at birth

The average number of years of life for males and females if they continued to be subject to the same same mortality experienced in the year(s) to which these life expectancies refer.

Level of education

As defined by ISCED (International Standard Classification of Education) version 1997 or 1976.

According to ISCED 1997 (latest revision)

• Pre-primary education: Level 0. Defined as the initial stage of organized instruction. Level 0 programmes are designed primarily to introduce very young children to a school type environment.
• Primary education: Level 1. Primary education or first stage of basic education. Normally designed to give students a sound basic education in reading, writing, and mathematics, along with an elementary understanding of other subjects.
• Secondary education: Levels 2 and 3. Level 2: Lower secondary or second stage education of basic education is designed to complete the provision of basic education which begins at ISCED level 1. Level 3: (Upper) Secondary education. Typically begins at the end of full-time compulsory education, for those countries that have a system of compulsory education.
• Post-secondary non-tertiary education: Level 4. Captures programmes that straddle the boundary between upper-secondary and post-secondary education from an international point of view, even though they might clearly be considered as upper-secondary or post-secondary programmes in a national context. ISCED 4 programmes can, considering their content, not be regarded as tertiary programmes.
• Tertiary education: Levels 5 and 6. Level 5: First stage of tertiary education. Consisting of tertiary programmes having an educational content more advanced then those offered at levels 3 and 4. Level 5A programmes are tertiary programmes that are largely theoretically based and are intended to provide sufficient qualifications for gaining entry into advanced research programmes and professions with high skills requirements whereas, Level 5B qualifications are typically shorter and focus on occupationally specific skills geared for entry into the labour market. Level 6: Second stage of tertiary education (leading to an advanced research qualification). Reserved for tertiary programmes which lead to the award of an advanced research qualification.

According to ISCED 1976

• Pre-primary education: Level 0. Education provided to children not old enough to enter school at the first level (e.g. nursery school or kindergarten).
• Primary education: Level 1. Designed to provide the basic elements of education. Entry to this level often coincides with the start of compulsory education (varying between ages 5 to 7), the most common duration being 6 years.
• Secondary education: Levels 2 and 3. Education provided in middle schools, secondary schools, high schools, lyceums, gymnasiums etc. Level 2: The duration of lower secondary education the first stage of secondary education is generally 3-4 years and its completion often coincides with the end of compulsory schooling. The second stage (Level 3) usually constitutes the final 3-4 years of secondary education.
• Tertiary education: Levels 5, 6 and 7. Level 5 - education leading to an award not equivalent to a first university degree. Level 6 - education leading to a first university degree or equivalent. Level 7 - education leading to a post-graduate university degree or equivalent.

Mainstreaming

Mainstreaming of women's development entails addressing gender issues in all development projects and programme, irrespective of sector of type of project. Mainstreaming is therefore the very opposite of a strategy of segregating gender issues into separate "women's projects".

The terms "mainstreaming" is currently used in two rather different ways, depending on the user's perspective in women's development. For those who interpret women's development as being merely concerned with improving women's access to resources and productivity, the strategy of mainstreaming may be interpreted in the minimum or weaker sense of integrating gender issues by adding gender objectives to existing programmes. This involves some adaptation, but nor transformation of the development process.

By contrast, a stronger sense of the term mainstreaming is used by those who see women's development as being essentially concerned with women's participation and empowerment, to address issues of gender inequality. From this perspective, the mainstreaming of gender issues entails the transformation of the development process. UNICEF has an explicit policy on mainstreaming which embraces this stronger meaning of mainstreaming.

Mean age at first marriage

The mean age at first marriage is the weighted average of the age specific rates of first marriage.

Marital status

Marital status refers to the (legal) conjugal status of each individual in relation to the marriage laws or customs of the country (de jure status). For this classification all persons living in consensual unions should be classified as single, married, widowed or divorced in accordance with their de jure status. However, in order to better reflect changing lifestyles, for countries that record data on cohabiting couples, this data is added.

Mean age of women at first birth

The mean age of women at first birth is the weighted average of the age specific rates of first order births.

Mid-year population

Estimate of the total number of persons present in the country (de facto population) on 1 July of the year indicated.

Main economic sectors

Using the International Standard Classification (ISIC Rev.2 1968 or Rev.3 1990) the economy is divided into three branches: 1) agriculture, 2) industry, and 3) services.

From ISIC Rev.2 the following are grouped together:

• Agriculture = Major group 1
• Industry = Major groups 2-5
• Services = Major groups 6-9, 0

From ISIC Rev.3:

• Agriculture = Categories A and B
• Industry = Categories C to F
• Services = Categories G to Q

Net enrolment ratio

Enrolment of the official age group for a given level of education expressed as a percentage of the corresponding population.

Practical Gender Needs

Practical Gender Needs (PGNs) are identified by women within their socially defined roles, as a response to an immediate perceived necessity. PGNs usually relate to inadequacies in living conditions such as water provision, health care and employment, and they do not challenge gender divisions of labour and women's subordinate position in society.

Participatory Development

Participatory development implies a partnership which is built on a dialogue among the various actors (stakeholders), during which the 'agenda' is set jointly and a variety of local views and indigenous knowledge are deliberately sought and respected. Participatory development implies negotiation rather than the dominance of an externally set project agenda.

Participation

Participation in the general sense, means having a share, or taking part. The Women's Equality & Empowerment Framework uses this word to denote having a share and taking part in decision-making. We are therefore here defining the term "participation" in this active sense of having a say in how things are done, and in how resources are allocated. Merely to have a share in resources is not in itself participation in the sense that it is used to denote an empowerment level in the Framework. The Framework sees gender equality in decision making as one of the essential aspects of women's empowerment, and uses the word "participation" to denote this aspect of empowerment.

Patriarchy

Patriarchy is the male domination of ownership and control, at all levels in society, which maintains and operates the system of gender discrimination. This system of control is justified in terms of patriarchal ideology - a system of ideas based on a belief in male superiority and sometimes the claim that the gender division of labour is based on biology or even based on scripture.

Patriarchal resistance

Patriarchal resistance is the present context, means the various ways patriarchal government or authority may try to stop women's collective action for an equal share in decision making, and equal control over the distribution of resources.

Programme

Programme in these reading is used differently from "project", to mean a collection of projects with a larger developmental purpose than an individual project

Project

Project is here used to mean an organisation of people and resources over time, used to bring about planned and pre-determined change by the end of the project period, for the benefit of a well defined target group. A project provides a planned developmental intervention to meet a need, or to overcome a problem. A project is also concerned with women's development if it recognises gender issues as part of the problem, and addresses these issues as part of the overall project purpose.

Paid and unpaid work

Paid work covers work for pay plus unpaid work in family businesses or farm. In time-use studies, training and studies in relation to work is also usually included.

Unpaid work covers all the other work done in the household or community, all care activities including personal care, studies, socialising and leisure time.

Population

All the inhabitants of a given country or area (province, city, metropolitan area etc.) considered together; the number of inhabitants of a country or area.

Population density

Inhabitants per square metre.

Part time employment

Due to variations in working hours between countries, there is no internationally agreed definition of part time employment. The findings of an OECD study conclude that a definition of part-time work based on a 30 usual hours threshold would appear to be most appropriate for the purposes of international comparisons. However, actual data vary from country to country.

Resources

Resources are means and goods, including those that are economic (household income) or productive (land, equipment, tools, work, credit); political (capability for leadership, information and organization); and time.

• Access - Access to resources implies that women are able to use and benefit from specific resources (material, financial, human, social, political, etc).
• Control - Control over resources implies that women can obtain access to a resource as and can also make decisions about the use of that resource. For example, control over land means that women can access land (use it), can own land (can be the legal title-holders), and can make decisions about whether to sell or rent the land.
• Benefits - Economic, social, political and psychological retributions derived from the utilization of resources, including the satisfaction of both practical needs (food, housing) and strategic interests (education and training, political power)

Reproductive rights

Reproductive rights rest on the recognition of the basic right of all couples and individuals to decide freely and responsibly the number, spacing and timing of their children and to have the information and means to do so, and the right to attain the highest standard of sexual and reproductive health. They also include the right of all to make decisions concerning reproduction free of discrimination, coercion and violence.

Rural and urban population

It is suggested that for purposes of international comparisons, countries define urban areas as localities with a population of 2 000 or more, and rural areas as localities with a population of less than 2 000 and sparsely populated areas. Some countries might also wish to consider defining urban areas in other ways (e.g. in terms of administrative boundaries, of built-up areas, of the area of which services such as shops, educational facilities, recreational facilities, employment, etc., are provided, or in terms of functional areas). Whatever approach is taken should be clearly described.

Sex

Sex refers to the biological characteristics which define humans as female or male. These sets of biological characteristics are not mutually exclusive as there are individuals who possess both, but these characteristics tend to differentiate humans as males and females.

Sexual rights

Sexual rights embrace human rights that are already recognized in national laws, international human rights documents and other consensus documents. These include the right of all persons, free of coercion, discrimination and violence, to: the highest attainable standard of health in relation to sexuality, including access to sexual and reproductive health care services; seek, receive and impart information in relation to sexuality; sexuality education; respect for bodily integrity; choice of partner; decide to be sexually active or not; consensual sexual relations; consensual marriage; decide whether or not, and when to have children; and pursue a satisfying, safe and pleasurable sexual life.

Sex roles

Sex roles may therefore be contrasted with gender roles, since sex roles refer to an occupation or biological function for which a necessary qualification is to belong to one particular sex category. For example, pregnancy is a female sex role because only members of the female sex may bear children.

Strategic Gender Interests

Strategic Gender Interests (SGIs) are identified by women as a result of their subordinate social status, and tend to challenge gender divisions of labour power and control, and traditionally defined norms and roles. SGIs vary according to particular contexts and may include such issues as legal rights, domestic violence, equal wages, and women's control over their bodies.

Structural gender inequality

exists where a system of gender discrimination is practiced by public or social institutions. Structural gender inequality is more entrenched if it is maintained by administrative rules and laws, rather than by only custom and traditions.

Strategic needs

Unlike practical needs, strategic needs arise out of an understanding and analysis of women's subordinate situation in society (conscientisation). Strategic needs are actions and strategies which are required to bring about stractural change and empowerment. These may also be variously expressed; a need for political and legislative reform to grant constitutional equality to women; reproductive rights; state accession to CEDAW; a political voice; action on violence against women.

Self-reliance

is the ability of people to improve themselves out of their own resources, by their own efforts. But here the term is given the special - and common - meaning of people's advancement by their own efforts within the existing social structure. This meaning of self-reliance implies that development problems arise from inadequacies in people's present abilities and efforts, rather than from inadequacies in society, or from structural inequality. This definition enables us to make a useful distinction between "self-reliance" and "empowerment", where the latter means taking power in both the individual and social plans. Where women's development involves overcoming a social system of discrimination against women, it is inadequate to discuss the development process purely in terms of women's self-improvement or increased self-reliance; we need also to discuss women's collective action for increased empowerment.

Self-employment

Persons who were not employed but performed some work for profit or family gain, in cash or in kind. Persons having an enterprise, which may be a business enterprise, a farm, or a service undertaking. Includes employers, own account workers, members of producers' co-operatives, unpaid family workers and persons engaged in the production of economic goods and services for own and household consumption if such production comprises an important contribution to the total consumption of the household.

Sex ratio

Women per 100 men. This can be specified for an age group, e.g. 65+, 80+.

Status in employment

As defined by the International Classification by Status in Employment (ICSE 1993). The following groups are distinguished:

• Contributing family workers - Those workers who hold a "self employment" job in a market -orientated establishment operated by a related person living in the same household, who cannot be regarded as a partner, because their degree of commitment to the operation of the establishment, in terms of working time (or other factors to be determined by national circumstances), is not at a level comparable to the head of the establishment.
• Employee - A person who works for a public or private employer and receives remuneration in wages, salary, commission, tips, piece-rates or pay-in-kind.
• Employer - A person who operates his or her own economic enterprise, or engages independently in a profession or trade, and hires one or more employees.
• Own account worker - A person who operates his or her own economic enterprise, or engages independently in a profession or trade, and hires no employees.
• Members of producers` cooperatives - A person with a self-employment type job (i.e. remuneration is directly dependent on profits from production) working in a cooperative producing goods and services, in which each member takes part on an equal footing with other members in determining the organization of production, sales and/or other work of the establishment, the investments and the distribution of the proceeds of the establishment amongst their members.
• Workers not classifiable by status - Includes those for whom insufficient relevant information is available, and/or who cannot be included in any of the preceding categories.

Total fertility rate

The average number of children that would be born alive to a woman during her lifetime if she were to pass through her childbearing years conforming to the age-specific fertility rates of a given year.

Trafficking in women

Illicit and clandestine movement of persons across national and international borders with the end goal of forcing women and girl-children into sexually or economically oppressive and exploitative situations for the profit of recruiters, traffickers, crime syndicates as well as other illegal activities related to trafficking such as forced domestic labour, false marriage, clandestine employment and forced adoption.

Transformatory potential

The concepts of transformatory potential takes the discussion of practical and strategic needs one step further. It means that development interventions should be examined to see which intervention will have the most potential to radically transform lives.

Thus, transformatory potential can be used as a working tol to assess activities and interventions by the following criteria.

Will the activity, programme or strategy under consideration serve to increase the social status of the target group? Enhance their economic or personal empowerment? Increase their decision-making capacity?

To effect the above an aditional question would need to be asked: What would need to be added to this programme/activity to ensure that the activity was capable of assisting in such a transformation?

Total fertility rate

The average number of children that would be born alive to a woman during her lifetime if she were to pass through her childbearing years conforming to the age-specific fertility rates of a given year.

Unemployed population

The unemployed comprise all persons above a specific age who during the reference period were:

• without work - i.e. were not in paid employment or self employment; and
• currently available for work - i.e. were available for paid employment or self employment during the reference period; and
• seeking work - i.e. had taken specific steps in a specified reference period to seek paid employment or self-employment.

Women in Development

Women in Development (WID) projects were an outcome of the realization that women's contributions were being ignored and that this was leading to the failure of many development efforts. WID projects were developed to involve women as participants and beneficiaries of development aid and initiatives.

Welfare

is a term used in a very special way in the Women's Equality and Empowerment framework, to refer to the gender gap between women and men in their material well-being. Like the other levels of the Framework, it is an analytic category, so that the "higher" levels of empowerment are by definition excluded. If a project were confined entirely to this welfare level, this would mean that women would be passive recipients of project benefits, since they are not involved in the higher levels of empowerment which denote more active roles in the development process. Although lacking in any degree of empowerment, the welfare level is arguably the most important level, since narrowing the gender gap in welfare is the ultimate objective in women's development, to which the process of empowerment must lead.

Youth unemployment rate

Unemployed persons aged 15-24 as a percentage of the labour force aged 15-24.